John Locke Is Wrong And Identity Of Humans - 1535 Words

Just what is a person? What makes a person, a person? Are humans just made of atoms and molecules just like what the scientists say? Or are humans something else, a soul perhaps? This has been debated for centuries by great philosophers, and one of them is John Locke. His idea of identity of a human is that humans are conscious beings thus their identity involve consciousness. However, Thomas Reid believes that Locke is wrong and identity of humans are transitive. But Locke’s To John Locke, identity of a person is their conscious; not substance or soul. However, what is a substance or a soul? Materialists believe that humans are nothing more than animals that think, thus substance can change and the animal or the person can also stay the†¦show more content†¦A simple example of this is: The person is the same person as someone in the past if the person has the consciousness of the experience that the someone in the past did. Thus, the identity of a person is limited to how much the conscious of later person remembers their earlier conscious memories. Only then he is truly the same person or himself. But then this bring few questions: Can there be a the same thinking substance in different people or different thinking substance in the same person and how do we punish people? To answer the first question he believes that the issue lies whether a immaterial being with consciousness could have its consciousness of its past actions be completely re moved then begin a life with new consciousness. Nonetheless if it was possible then Locke argues that there is no reason to say that the person who’s soul and conscious lived before the removal is the same person whose new consciousness took over. To answer the second part, Locke says that the answer depends on whether the conscious of the past actions can be transferred to another person who did not experience it. Locke believes this phenomenon is possible and if it was, would this person be the same person he was before? Yes. Using Locke’s theory whereShow MoreRelatedEssay about Why Is Personal Identity Important in Lockes View?1596 Words   |  7 PagesIn his essay Of Identity and Diversity, Locke talks about the importance of personal identity. The title of his essay gives an idea of his view. Identity, according to Locke, is the memory and self consciousness, and diversity is the faculty to transfer memories across bodies and souls. In order to make his point mor e understandable, Locke defines man and person. Locke identifies a man as an animal of a certain form and a person as a thinking intelligent being. Furthermore, to Locke, a person has reasonsRead MoreJohn Locke s Theory Of Self And Personal Identity Essay1449 Words   |  6 PagesJohn Locke a seventeenth century Philosopher uses a number of thought experiments in his 1690 account, ’An Essay concerning Human Understanding’. He uses these thought experiments to help explain his definition of the self and personal identity. The thought experiments that are used, go some way in explaining his opinions and in clarifying the role that memory plays in defining the term. Although defining personal identity was and still is a complex subject and not all philosophers share the sameRead MoreDescartes And John Locke s Views On Consciousness, Self, And Personal Identity1475 Words   |  6 PagesDescartes and John Locke endeavored to question the views on consciousness, self, and personal identity. They examined belief in God, the certainty of knowledge, and the role of mind and body. The goal of this paper is to deliberate John Locke’s and Renà © Descartes views on â€Å"self† and personal identity and how each come to examine how knowledge is captured. Renà © Descartes and John Locke both present arguments that are rational in the discussion of consciousness, self, and personal identity, but each lackRead MoreJohn Locke s Views On Education879 Words   |  4 PagesJohn Locke was a philosopher, doctor and political theorists of the 17th century. He was one of the founders of the school of thought known as British Empiricism. Mr. Locke made foundational contributions to modern theories of limited, liberal government. He was also influential in the areas of theology, religious toleration, and educational theory. During his services at Shaftesbury, John Locke had been writing. He published all of his most significant works within six years of following his returnRead MoreThe Second Treatise Of Government By John Locke1593 Words   |  7 PagesSandle Episode 04 For most of human history people have been debating what is the appropriate nature of the relationship between the individual and society. 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Jean-PaulRead MoreRene Descartes and John Locke698 Words   |  3 Pageshave precedent in late Aristolelianism and earlier philosophers like St. Augustine. Descartes was a major figure in 17th century continental rationalism, later advocated by Baruch Spinoza and opposed by the empiricist school of thought consisting of Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. His most famous statement is: Cogito ergo sum, translation in English I think therefore I am. Descartes employs a method called metaphysical doubt, sometimes also referred to as methodological skepticism: he rejects any ideasRead MoreInnate Ideas Essay653 Words   |  3 Pagesphilosophers who had different ideas concerning where innate ideas come from and how we get these types of ideas. Rene Descartes and John Locke were these two philosophers with the opposing argument on innate ideas. The place where Descartes discusses his views were in the Meditations on First Philosophy and Lockes argument is located in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. By using these sources I will be able to describe the difference between these two arguments on innate ideas. ReneRead MoreThe Life and Opinions of Tristam Shandy Essay1679 Words   |  7 PagesThe term â€Å"identity† is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as â€Å"blah blah blah†. This concept can be viewed as personal and individual to one’s self, and is distinguished as an umbrella term to attributes such as; consciousness, heritage, name, appearance, and the soul. As Sterne’s novel Tristram Shandy draws influence from John Locke’s An Essay of Human Understanding, in which Locke discusses the origin of personal identity, the individual identity is evidently reflected within the text. TheRead MoreRelationship Between Liberalism And Conservatism1317 Words   |  6 Pagesto support the claim that liberalism and conservatism are not compatible ideologies. By compatible, I meant being consistent without any disagreements. Social contract theory is â€Å"theoretical tool and a metaphor† (Kelly 2004, pp. 38) designed by John Locke and other liberals to portray how a state came into place. It is a collective agreement by self- interested individuals who give up their natural rights to Commonwealth in exchange for protection by established law. The power of Commonwealth is

The Field Of Social Psychology - 1378 Words

In the field of Social Psychology, numerous studies have been made about different types of behavior and what causes humans to act a certain way. There are also different specific types of behavior that have been studied, such as aggression. One important study made about signs and effects of aggression would be Stanford University’s Dr. Philip Zimbardo’s study of prisoners and guards in a simulated prison. His research was conducted along with two of his graduate assistants by the name of Craig Haney and Curtis Banks. Their research was done in 1971. Zimbardo had selected a group of college students to perform the experiment on, half of the students were the â€Å"guards† where they would act and impersonate themselves as if they were actual†¦show more content†¦The main purpose of Philip Zimbardo’s experiment was to see if inborn personality traits of inmates and guards were the main reason of aggressive behaviors in prison. He wanted to study t he human response to captivity and find different effects of personality changes. This research was conducted in a makeshift jail in the school’s building of psychology basement of Stanford University in 1971 for a short period of days. Zimbardo wanted to make sure that the experiment was life-like and treated the assigned student â€Å"prisoners† and assigned â€Å"guards† as if those were their real-life roles. He wanted accurate results and effects from this experiment. The population being studied was a group of 24 students selected from a group of 75 volunteered students from Stanford University. They were all males as well and none of them had criminal records, psychological disorders, nor any medical conditions. At that time, they were paid fifteen dollars a day. Of those twenty-four students, twelve of them were to be the prisoners and the other twelve were to be the guards. Zimbardo expected the students to act their role. For example, he gave those who were the guards, sunglasses to avoid eye contact with the prisoners, whistles, and sticks; and those who were the

Ester Hydrolysis Free Essays

The Equilibrium Constant of an Ester Hydrolysis Reaction Abstract: The results from this experiment show four different Kc equilibrium constants of: . 1522 for bottle two, . 1853 for bottle three, . We will write a custom essay sample on Ester Hydrolysis or any similar topic only for you Order Now 2094 for bottle four, and . 2678 for bottle five. The average Kc value came out to be . 2037 for all four bottles. Purpose: The purpose of this lab is to determine the equilibrium concentrations of an organic acid, an alcohol, an ester, and water in four bottles with varying measurements of each compound in of the four solutions. Once the concentrations are determined, one is then to discover the Kc, equilibrium constant, of those solutions by dividing the concentrations of alcohol and acid by the concentrations of ester and water. Methods/Procedure: First begin by mixing up and standardizing a 500mL solution of NaOH to titrate. For each of the six bottles, measure the directed amounts of ester, water, alcohol, and HCl. The bottles of different solutions will be left to come to equilibrium for two weeks. Once the NaOH is standardized, the solutions in the bottles have come to equilibrium, and a molarity is calculated, use the molarity of NaOH to discover how many mols were used to neutralize the solutions in each bottle. Once all of the calculations are complete, use an ICE chart to discover the mols of ester, water, acid, and alcohol at equilibrium to then calculate the Kc for each bottle. After a Kc has been calculated for all bottles, the last step is to determine an average Kc for all of the solutions. Calculations/Results: Grams of KHP needed: 7mol x 35ml x 1molKHP x 204gKHP1000ml x 1 x 1molNaOH x 1molKHP=5. 00gKHP Grams of NaOH: .7molNaOH x . 500L x 1mol 1L x 1 x 40g~14gNaOH Mass of dish: 1. 80g Mass of bottle 1: 17. 1145g Mass of HCl 1: 4. 8778g Mass of NaOH 14. 0g Mass of bottle 1A: 17. 3521g Mass of HCl 1A: 5. 2319g Mass of dish: 2. 0097g Mass of dish and KHP: 6. 0548g Mass of KHP: 5. 0378g mL of NaOH used to neutralize KHP: 1. 36. 90mL 2. 30. 80mL 3. 36. 40mL g of KHP: 1. 5 . 0378g 2. 4. 2074g 3. 4. 9722g Molarity of NaOH: .6690M| 6689M| Avg M: . 6688M NaOH| 5. 0378gKHP x 1molKHP x 1molNaOH x 1 x 1000mL1 x 204. 2g x 1molKHP x 36. 90mL x 1L=. 6686M mL of NaOH used: 1A: 6. 20mL – 24. 90mL = 18. 70mL| 1: 17. 00mL| 2: 60. 54mL| 3: 58. 60mL| 4: 45. 55mL| 5: 40. 75mL| Ethanol: Water:Ethyl Acetate: Density: . 7893g/mL Density: . 9982g/mLDensity: . 9003g/mL Molar Mass: 46. 07g/molMolar Mass: 18. 02g/molMolar Mass: 88. 11g/mol mL of solutions in each bottle: Bottle #| 3M HCl (mL)| H2O (mL)| Ester (mL)| Alcohol (mL)| 1| 5. 00| 5. 00| 0| 0| 1A| 5. 00| 5. 00| 0| 0| 2| 5. 00| 0| 5. 00| 0| 3| 5. 00| 1. 00| 4. 00| 0| 4| 5. 0| 3. 00| 2. 20| 0| 5| 5. 00| 2. 00| 2. 00| 1. 00| Bottles 1 and 1A M HCl: 17. 00mLNaOH x . 6688molNaOH x 1 molHCl x 11 x 1000ml x 1molNaOH x . 005LHCl=2. 27MHCL x . 005L= . 01137molHCl .01251 molHCl Average mol HCl of bottles 1 and 1A: (. 01251mol + . 01137mol)/2 = . 01194molHCl Mol NaOH for bottles 2-5: .6688MNaOH x 1L x 60. 54mLNaOH1L x 1 000mL x 1= . 04049molNaOH .03919molNaOH .03046molNaOH .02725molNaOH Density of HCl: 5. 2319gHCl x 11 x 5. 00mL=1. 046g/mLHCl Grams of HCl and H2O: 1. 046gHCl x 5. 00mLH2O1mL=5. 230gHCl+H20 Grams of HCl: .01194molHCl x 36. 54gHCl1 mol HCl= . 4352gHCl Grams of HCl and H2O – Grams of HCl: 5. 230gHCl+H2O – . 4352gHCl = 4. 794gH2O from 5. 00mL of HCl in bottles 1-5 Grams of H2O made + grams H2O given for bottles 2-5: 4. 794gH2O + 0. 00mLH2O x . 9982gH2O/mL = 4. 794gH2O 5. 792gH2O 7. 789gH2O 6. 790gH2O Grams to mols of H2O for bottles 2-5: 4. 794gH2O x 1molH2O1 x 18. 02gH2O= . 2661molH2O .3214molH2O .4322molH2O .3768molH2O Mols of ester for bottles 2-5: 5. 00mLester x . 9003gester x 1mol ester1 x 1mL x 88. 11gester= . 05109mols ester .4087mols ester .02248mols ester .02044mols ester Mols of acid for bottles 2-5: 60. 54mLNaOH x 1L x . 688molNaOH x 1molacid1 x 1000mL x 1L x 1molNaOH x 1= . 04049molacid .03919molacid .03046molacid .02725molacid Total mols of acid – mols HCl for bottles 2-5: .04049mol total acid – . 01194mol HCl = . 02855mol organic acid . 02725mol organic acid . 01852mol organic acid .01531mol organic acid Mols of alcohol for bottle 5: 1. 00mLalcohol x . 7893galcohol x 1 mol alcohol1 x 1mL x 4 6. 07galcohol= . 01713mol alcohol Ice Charts for bottles 2-5: ESTER (mol)| WATER (mol)| ACID (mol)| ALCOHOL (mol)| I: . 05109| . 2661| 0| 0| C: -. 2855| -. 02855| -. 02855| -. 02855| E: . 02254| . 2376| . 02855| . 02855| ESTER (mol)| WATER (mol)| ACID (mol)| ALCOHOL (mol)| I: . 04087| . 3214| 0| 0| C: -. 02725| -. 02725| -. 02725| -. 02725| E: . 01362| . 2942| . 02725| . 02725| ESTER (mol)| WATER (mol)| ACID (mol)| ALCOHOL (mol)| I: . 02248| . 4322| 0| 0| C: -. 01852| -. 01852| -. 01852| -. 01852| E: . 00396| . 4137| . 01852| . 01852| ESTER (mol)| WATER (mol)| ACID (mol)| ALCOHOL (mol)| I: . 02044| . 3768| 0| . 01713| C:-. 01531| -. 01531| -. 01531| . 01531| E: . 00513| . 3615| . 01531| . 03244| Kc for bottles 2-5: Kc=. 02855[. 02855]. 0254[. 376]= . 1522 .1853 .2094 .2678 Avg Kc: .1522 + . 1853 +. 2094 + . 2678 = . 8147 .8147/4 = . 2037 Discussion: A known error in this experiment with this data is the mass of hydrochloric acid measured for bottle 1. The mass was below 5 grams (4. 8778g) which threw the calculations off. To compensate for the poor data, an average of the two masses of hydrochloric acid was taken, and then the number of moles was found to get a better approximation of what the number of moles should be. Another possible error in this experiment was not having adequate time for the solutions to equilibrium completely. If the solutions had not fully reached equilibrium the equilibrium constant would be off for whichever solutions, if not all, that had not come to equilibrium. The Kc values were all approximately one tenth off of each other. In theory, the Kc values should all be the same which indicates that there is a high probability that the solutions had not fully reached equilibrium. In conclusion, the results would have been closer and more exact had the solutions had more time to come to equilibrium as well as if the mass of hydrochloric acid was closer to where it should have been. 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Human Musicality Essay Example For Students

Human Musicality Essay Hodges Music is a universal trait of humankind. Throughout the ages it has played a significant role in the lives of people In every part of the globe This can be illustrated by imagining an internal soundtrack for each of the following vignettes. Formalize, Brazil: Nighttime revelers parade down the street by the light of flickering torches. The movements to the cabochons (the dancers) are accompanied by drums, caracal (a scraped gourd), and flutes (Olsen 1980). Bayonne, New Jersey: A lonely, confused teenager sits brooding In his room The headphones he wears are unconnected to a jamb (tape player), which is playing his favorite rock tapes. Borderland, Ghana: Members of the Farad tribe play on the Degreed (d minestrones fiddle) and shake rattles to accompany workers who are cutting grass (Initiate 1974). The workers swing their machetes rhythmically In such a way that the cutting sounds are timed to fall on the mall beats of the music. Kayaks, Saudi Arabia: As a nervous bride makes last-minute preparations, she can hear the strains of the professional orchestra that has been hired to entertain the wedding guests. The Newbie, d suite of ices, is being played on the Lid (lute), nay (flute), and duff (tambourine) (Apocryphal 1980). Madrid. Spain: Thousands of voices roar as the matador strides into the arena, followed by the bandoleers and placarded Their measured pace Is timed to a opposable played by the band. Subsequent phases of the bullfight will be introduced or accompanied by the blaring of trumpets Rowers, Belgium: A nun sits n a corner of the convent garden She is strumming lightly on a guitar and humming softly to herself. Mazda-e-Shares, Afghanistan: Mourners gather from all parts of the village at a mass burial tort fallen soldiers. Their dirges are accompanied by the sound to a Ritchie. A twisting lute whose sound box is made of a discarded, rectangular gasoline can (Mall 1967). Yuan, china: Peasant families have been assembled to hear speeches given by visiting political dignitaries. The ceremonies begin with the appropriate, stratospheres music played over loudspeakers. These examples give some indication to the tremendous amount to music there is in the world and the profound and pervasive influences music exerts on human life. But how do we account for the pervasiveness and universality of human musicality? How did we come to be musical creatures? Is musicality Indeed universal, and, If so, is it inherited or acquired? The purpose to this chapter is to explore some to these fundamental questions. Many of the Issues raised herein will be visited in more detail In subsequent chapters. For the following discussions, musicality Is defined as a responsiveness or sensitivity to musical stimuli. It also includes an appreciation or understanding of music, but does not necessarily Include technical proficiency In musical performance (George and Hodges 1980). In this regard, all persons possess mom degree of musicality, because everyone responds In some fashion to the music of his or her surrounding culture. Even severely and profoundly retarded Individuals respond to music in a rudimentary way. To be totally musical would require massive, almost total brain damage. The Musical Significance of Human Nature What Human Musicality By Teleology significant role in the lives of people in every part of the globe. This can be illustrated The movements of the cabochons (the dancers) are accompanied by drums, confused teenager sits brooding in his room. The headphones he wears are unconnected to a Jamb (tape player), which is playing his favorite rock tapes. Borderland, Ghana: Members of the Afar tribe play on the Dogma (a minnesinger The workers swing their machetes rhythmically in such a way that the cutting sounds are timed to fall on the main beats of the music. Kayaks, Saudi Arabia: As a nervous orchestra that has been hired to entertain the wedding guests. The Anabas, a suite of pieces, is being played on the du (lute), nay (flute), and duff (tambourine) (Apocryphal 1980). Madrid, Spain: Thousands of voices roar as the matador strides into the arena, allowed by the bandoleers and picadors. Their measured pace is timed to a opposable played by the band. Subsequent phases of the bullfight will be introduced or accompanied by the blaring of trumpets. Rollers, Belgium: A nun sits in a corner of the convent garden. She is strumming lightly on a guitar and humming softly to herself. Mazda-e-Shari, Afghanistan: Mourners gather from all parts of the village at a mass burial for fallen soldiers. Their dirges are accompanied by the sound of a Ritchie, a two-string lute whose sound box is made of a discarded, rectangular gasoline can (Mall 1967). Yuan, China: Peasant families have been assembled to appropriate, stratospheres music played over loudspeakers. These examples give some indication of the tremendous amount of music there is in the world and the 2 How did we come to be musical creatures? Is musicality indeed universal, and, if so, is it inherited or acquired? The purpose of this chapter is to explore some of these fundamental questions. Many of the issues raised herein will be visited in more detail in subsequent chapters. For the following discussions, musicality is defined as understanding of music, but does not necessarily include technical proficiency in casual performance (George and Hodges 1980). In this regard, all persons possess some degree of musicality, because everyone responds in some fashion to the music of his or her surrounding culture. Even severely and profoundly retarded individuals into this uniqueness? Is music separate from humanness, or is there evidence to support a view of music as an integral part of human nature? If we attempt to specify the ways in which human beings are unique and different from other animal species, we must quickly conclude that most, if not all, differences are in degree, not in kind. That is, other animals may possess a particular trait similar to humans, but not to the same extent. For example, if we say that a distinctive characteristic of humankind is language, it is possible to point to communication among dolphins or the sign language learned by chimpanzees in certain experiments as rudimentary forms of the same behavior. Or if we say that social organizations are a human trait, a parallel might be found in the behaviors of bees or ants. We have elaborate rituals connected with death, but elephants have been observed engaging in what might be called a burial ceremony. Music may even have its animal counterpart in whale song?to a degree. However, it is the degree of human involvement in such behaviors as language, social organizations, rituals, and music that separates us from other animals. To say that our humanity arises from the degree of involvement we have in a specific behavior rather than the presence of that behavior implies that, while animals may exhibit rudimentary forms of certain human behaviors, differences between the animal and human versions are so vast as to make us unique. Returning to language, it is true that chimpanzees may, in certain laboratory experiments, learn o communicate via sign language. But it is important to note that they are learning human sign language with the aid of human tutors. Chimpanzees left alone in their natural environment certainly do communicate with each other. However, after millions of years, they still have not developed advanced linguistic skills, and to compare their communication skills with human language is simply to point out the distinctive differences between humans and chimpanzees. L We study, write, and talk about them, but, except in science fiction, they dont put us in labs or stalk s in our natural habitats to learn more about us and our actions. Neither do they hunt us to extinction nor undertake major efforts to preserve us. ) The Bible refers to ants as a model for improving human behavior? Go to the ant, you sluggard, watch her ways and get wisdom (Proverbs 6:6). Do the ants ever refer to humans to improve their behavior? Those animals that do 3 mating dances do not choreograph new steps for the next season; whale songs, for all their haunting loveliness, do not equate with the tremendous outpouring of music from all the worlds people. If human beings are different from animals primarily in degree and not necessarily in kind of behaviors, how then can we be described? What is the nature of human nature? Such a question has engaged philosophers, scientists, and artists for centuries and is not likely to be answered completely in these pages. However, in order to set the stage for subsequent discussions, ten ways in which human beings are unique will be introduced. Following the more general discussion, some brief remarks about the relationship of music to each unique trait will be made. The ten topics are: biological differences, adaptability, cultural evolution, symbolic behaviors, love, religion, play, technology, knowledge, and aesthetic sensitivity. Biological Differences As Eagle indicated in characteristics. For example, the genetic material for all living things that provides the instructions necessary for reproduction is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Such primates as chimpanzees and apes are our closest relatives, so close that the genetic difference between man and chimpanzees is less than 2 percent and it takes a sophisticated biochemical analysis of our blood and that of a gorilla to tell the difference (Bobbed and McKee 1994). Yet human beings are clearly recognizable as a species. Anatomically, the human hand is similar to that of a monkey species that lived 25 million years ago. However, even minor differences can have major consequences. For example, a gorillas hand is long and slender with a short, stubby thumb; our hands are short with long thumbs. Our longer thumb allows for a precision grip with the index finger and makes possible the manipulation of microelectronic in neurosurgery and other similar feats of dexterity, such as playing the piano. Another example of an anatomical difference that also has profound uniqueness is found in the larynx. We have a vocal tract that allows us to speak and sing; no other primate can. Human beings also differ from other animals in the degree to which our behavior is controlled by inborn instructions. In birds, for example, such complex behaviors as nest building, flying south for the winter, and singing are largely the product of genetic hardwiring. In terms of behavior, human beings inherit reflexes such as eye blinking and startle responses, basic expressive responses such as blushing and smiling, and life-sustaining actions such as suckling and swallowing. However, more complex behavior patterns are learned, not instinctive. In comparison to birds, we do not build houses, travel, or sing in a genetically predetermined manner. Anatomical variations and freedom from instincts notwithstanding, the most important difference between humans and other animals is our brain power. Those behaviors that make us distinctively human?language, art, religion, technology, and so on?are all generated from an enormous reservoir of potential. We start life with nearly three-fourths of the brain uncommitted to specific tasks, and there seem to be few limitations on what or how much might be learned Barb 1978; Springer and Deutsche 1989). Thus, it is our human biological potential that makes music possible. We are musical creatures because of our physical and mental makeup. Further exploration of this idea will be undertaken in considerable detail in subsequent chapters. Adaptability Most animals have a physical specialty. Jaguars are capable of blinding speed, eagles have incredible eyesight, bats fly by means of sophistica ted echolocation. Human beings, it might be said, are mental specialists and physical generalists. That is, rather than coming to rely on brute strength, fast running, or a en sense of smell, we opted for no particular physical specialty. In order to survive, we came to rely on quick wits and an ability to gain an advantage through mental means. Tremendous intellectual capabilities (including enormous amounts of uncommitted brain power), combined with a lack of predetermined behavior patterns (instincts) and a lack of reliance on a specific physical trait have given us freedoms that no other animals have. We have a freedom to become or to do nearly anything that we can conceive. Said another way, we are enormously plastic creatures. We depths of oceans to outer space. Why Lil B is Today's Smartest Rapper EssayThere is another connection between art and tools. Tools have always been made with an eye to something beyond functional design. Spear points and axe handles are created with attention to shape. Jugs?tools for carrying water?are shaped in a manner and with a flair that are not necessary for utilitarian purposes, but seem to be necessary for human pleasure. Some anthropologists even consider that the bow was first a musical instrument before it became a weapon. Other genealogical advances had their genesis in artistic pursuits. Techniques in metallurgy, welding and ceramics are but three examples. Barb even states explicitly that the great advances in technology would obviously have been impossible without the human urge to explore new directions in artistic creativity (Barb 1978, 75). Knowledge One of the unique traits of humankind is a natural propensity for seeking knowledge. Concepts of the human infant as a tabular Rasa or as a passive organism reacting only to the environment are wrong. We are active seekers of knowledge. It is basic to human nature to be curious, to wonder, to explore, to covers. Knowledge can be gained through all the sense modalities. We can learn about our world by touch; for the blind this becomes an important avenue of information, a substitute way of seeing. Babies, in particular, explore their world through taste; everything goes immediately into the mouth. Smelling may seem like a less important means of gathering knowledge, but we can know something about a stranger based on body odor. Because the olfactory lobes are in close proximity to the site of long-term memory storage, remembrances of past events are often triggered by odors. Vision and hearing are primary means of gathering knowledge. Egging to function in the last few months of fetal development and babies recognize the sounds of their mothers voice within a few days, if not sooner. Notice that what the baby knows about mother is not factual information but feelings? feelings associated with security and pleasure. This is an important concept to remember? that knowledge involves far more than facts. Music is an important way of knowing. Think, for a moment, of all the things one can learn or know through nursery songs, religious music, popular and commercial music (including music used in advertising, ivies, and television shows), folk music, and art music. On a superficial level, one can learn the alphabet through music. At a deeper level, one can learn about foreign cultures through music. Finally, at perhaps the deepest level, one can learn more about oneself and gain insights into the human condition through music. Aesthetic Sensitivity 9 In all times and in all places, human beings have sought to create beauty. The variety of ways we have done so is nothing short of staggering. We have decorated our own bodies in nearly every way conceivable (though future generations will find still more ways). We have inserted disks in our lips, scarified and tattooed our arms and trunks, bound our feet, and stretched our necks. No part of our bodies has been immune from this process?we have painted our toenails and twisted, combed, shaped, and colored our hair into innumerable styles. Lest describing it in this way seems more like the behavior of aborigines than modern, sophisticated Americans, consider that one of the rages of recent years has been the tanning parlor. For a sum of money, a person can step into a booth with virtually no clothes on, push some buttons, and toast his skin to Just the right shade. What we have done to our bodies we have done to clothes, food, and dwellings. Beyond the decoration of our surroundings, human beings have always and everywhere explored every mode of sensory experience with an aesthetic sensitivity that is supremely characteristic of our species. The manipulation of sound, sight, space, and movement?the arts?have given us tremendous insights into the human condition and brought us much pleasure in the process. To be human is to have the potential of perceiving and responding to artistic experiences with a depth of feeling. We are as much aesthetic rattles as we are physical, social, intellectual, emotional, and religious beings. Summary Human beings differ from other animals primarily in the extent to which we engage in certain behaviors. An overview of these differences has been presented under the following ten topics. Biological Differences Human beings are biologically unique in several important ways, including our freedom from instinctive behaviors and anatomical differences. However, the biological potential of our brains is what most separates us from the other animals. Adaptability Human beings are unique because of our high degree of adaptability. We have no physical specialty but are mental specialists instead. The concept of invariants is useful in understanding how human beings express common needs in an infinite variety of behaviors. We are not bound to live our lives in a prescribed manner due to genetic programming, but we are free to adapt to many different lifestyles. Cultural Evolution We are the only animal species engaged in cultural evolution. Culture is the vehicle by which we accomplishments with each new generation. Symbolic Behaviors Verbal language is a very distinctive mark of our humanity. It allows us to communicate and express Hough with precision or with imagery. We also have a broad repertoire of nonverbal symbolic behaviors. These are useful not only for supplementing words but also for expressing ourselves in ways that are impossible through words. 10 Love Human beings have a strong need to give and to receive love. The loving process is critical to the development and maintenance of a healthy personality. As is fitting with so important a behavior, we have devised numerous ways of sharing and expressing love. Play Play is not only pleasurable, it is an important and necessary part of human life. Play, in the formalized sense of celebrations, occupies a central place in all human cultures. Creative play comes from the manipulation of the sensory environment and contains elements of surprise and adventure. Play as humor is also found everywhere. Religion The need human beings have to worship seems to be so ingrained as to be a universal trait. As groups of people and as individuals, all human beings have considered questions of a spiritual nature. So important is our spiritual nature, that certain individuals within each group are set aside to handle matters of religious concern. Technology Sometimes we have been ladled the toolmaker. Our technological achievements have allowed us to make progress in nearly every field of human endeavor. Knowledge Human beings are characterized by their thirst for knowledge. We are designed to be curious creatures. Our natural inquisitiveness has driven us to create a wide variety of ways of knowing. Aesthetic Sensitivity The human race has always been concerned with the notion of beauty. We are moved by the beauty we experience in our natural world and also by that which we have created. Creating and/or responding to beauty is part and parcel of being human. These, then, are some of the ways we are unique. While this is but a brief introduction, the significant role that music plays in human nature should already be apparent. Music is not a separate, trivial, side issue of being human; rather, musicality is at the core of what it means to be human. As Thomas has stated: I believe fervently in our species and have no patience with the current fashion of running down the human being as a useful part of nature. On the contrary, we are a spectacular, splendid manifestation of life. We have language and can build metaphors as skillfully and precisely as ribosome make proteins. We have affection. We have genes for usefulness, and usefulness is about as close to a common goal for all of nature as I can guess at. And finally, and perhaps best of all, we have music. Any species capable of producing, at this earliest, Juvenile stage of its development? almost instantly after emerging on the earth by any evolutionary 1 1 standard?the music of Johann Sebastian Bach, cannot be all bad. (Thomas 1979, 16- 17) Why Are We Musical? Speculations on the Evolutionary Plausibility of Musical Behavior In considering the nature of human musicality, one might reasonably wonder why we are musical at all and how did we come to be this way? Oddly enough, there are frequent statements in the literature that make it appear as if there is no known reason for music. 2 Musical skills are not essential so far as we significance (Dowling and Hardwood 1986, 202). One might ask why evolution should have provided us with such complex innate machinery, for which there is no evident survival value (Leeward and Jackknifed 1983, 232-33). Why do we respond emotionally to music, when the messages therein seem to be of no obvious survival value? (Reordered 1982, 38). Why do we have music, and let it occupy our lives with no apparent reason? (Minsk 1982, 12). These statements are all the more puzzling since it is becoming increasingly clear that every human being has a biologic guarantee of musicianship (Wilson 1986, 2). This is so because genetic instructions create a brain and body that are predisposed to be musical. Just as we are born to be linguistic, with the specific language to be learned determined by the culture, so we are born with the means to be responsive to the music of our culture. If music does not confer any survival benefits, why would it be provided for in our neurophysiology structures? Why would it have developed to the point where it is a universal trait of our species? A place to begin looking for answers is with the central focus of evolutionary theory. Attributes that confer survival benefits upon members of a species, whether arrived at through genetic mutation or adaptation to the environment, are passed on to offspring. Stronger members of a species, by virtue of these attributes, are more likely to live longer and to produce more offspring; thus, the attributes they possess are more likely to be promoted until such time as all members of the species possess the same attributes. In this way did the cheetah get TTS speed and the giraffe its long neck. One way of getting at the evolutionary basis for music is to look at the primary element of all music, rhythm. Before proceeding any further, however, a cautionary note must be put forward. While the following discussion is as based on data as possible, much of it is speculative. Because the earliest examples of musical behavior left no facsimiled remains, there are no records, no direct vestiges. There are many secondary sources from which to deduce early musical behaviors. 3 But in the final analysis, all one can offer is a best guess based on the scant information available. Rhythm, a Fundamental Life Process One of the tenets of quantum physics is that everything that exists is in a state of vibration. Atoms vibrate at rates of a million billion times per second, while the sun vibrates with a period of five minutes (Chin 1983, 392). Heliographys is the study of the suns oscillations and astronomers tell us that the galaxies and the entire universe are in states of vibration. 12 Human beings live in what we perceive to be a rhythmic environment, based on observations of periodicities. Seasons of the year, phases of the moon, and periods of daylight and dark follow in regular, timely patterns. Our bodies, too, operate on rhythmic patterns. Heart and breathing rates are two of the more obvious bodily processes that are periodic. Brain waves, hormonal outputs, and sleeping patterns are examples of the more than 100 complex oscillations monitored by the brain (Barb 1978, 293). Chronologists, those who study body rhythms, believe that rhythm is such an important part of life that a lack of it can indicate illness. For example, complex forms of dysphasia may be a symptom of autism, manic depression, or schizophrenia; dysphasia can also indicate dyslexia or other learning disabilities